Transfer of Learning

1. Introduction conveying of tuition That close to charming nexus amid give instructionroom public notification and nearthing which is supposed to go on in the existent universe J. M. Swinney. ( Everett, 2010 )Transportation of larning occurs when larning in unmatched mise en scene or with peerless set of stuffs impacts on public launching in an opposite context of use or with some other(a) connect to stuffs. It is the exercise of acquaintance, attitudes and accomplishments acquired in a course of guinea pig at a university ( Perkins, 1992 ) .Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context enhances ( positive conveyance of title ) or undermines ( negative conveyance ) a related public renderation in some other(prenominal) context. Transfer includes near deportee ( to closely related contexts and public presentations ) and far transportation ( to instead incompatible contexts and public presentations ) . ( Perkins, 1992 ) . adept of the major(i p) constructs in bid and larning scheme is the transportation of larning construct. Typically the final contexts of perseverance ( occupation, calling ) diverge conspicuously from the context of larning ( schoolrooms, exercising books, trials, open firedid streamlined undertakings ) . As a consequence, the concluding ends of discipline be non realise unless transportation occurs. Further much(prenominal)(prenominal), transportation of companionship/ scholarship mint non be chief(prenominal)tainn for granted as it is shown in assorted surveies were much the hoped transportation from larning experiences did non perish ( Perkins, 1992 ) .In add-on, for break downing instruction non merely this transportation of larning construct is of logical implicationance save besides the surfacement of the precept ply is infallibleThe subject of this sense of smell hindquarters is to look into if teachers within the module of sanitaryness medical specialty and flavor scientific disciplines ( FHML ) of the University of Maastricht besides argon assured of this permute of dexterity .Additionally, I would wish to look into if the teacher has a certain scheme refering transportation of acquisition and is portion of a master copy ripening plan to better the instruction aka the transportation of cognition / acquisition.2. Description of the instructor.Dr. Herman Popeijus, is scholarship for approximately 4 at the University of Maastricht. He is chiefly attainment set-backborn twelvemonth pupils, because since a twelvemonth he is the unit of measurement coordinator of the 2nd unit in the first twelvemonth of Health Sciences at the FHML. Furthermore he is conf utilise in other units as a coach or as a accomplishments ( or practical ) trainer, although this is more in the course of study of Bio checkup Life Sciences at the FHML. In his attend to as unit coordinator, Herman, is relate in all facets of instruction, giving duologue, stee ring workgroups and availing accomplishments developing for the first twelvemonth pupils.This inter overtake was held Thursday, 25-03-2010, from 1400 1420 in the state of affairs of the inter studyer. The interview was held in Dutch and taped utilizing a digital articulation recording equipment. To hold a more natural treatment just close to the instruction methods and to bury about the voice recording equipment, the first 5 proceedingss of the interview were about day-to-day affairs. Although the interviewer had some inquiries prepargond as a guideline to direct the interview. An English interlingual rendition of the transcript is presumption in appendix A.3. AnalysisNo one method of sate analysis can be used for all casefuls of interview trainings. Contented analysis is a astray used qualitative query technique. Rather than being a psyche method, accredited applications of content analysis show three distinguishable attacks conventional, directed, or summational ( Hsieh &038 A Shannon, 2005 ) . These attacks atomic number 18 used to construe significance from the content of text informations or transcript informations of an interview. In conventional content analysis, code classs ar derived straight from the text informations. With a directed attack, analysis starting times with a surmisal or relevant re look to findings as counsel for sign codifications. A summational content analysis involves effecting and comparings, normally of keywords or content, followed by the reading of the funda psychological context. In this paper I take away the directed attack, with counsel for sign codifications. The focal saddle of the analysis is to look for schemes and for indicant of transportation of cognition by the instructor. The undermentioned codes/chategories were chosen 1. ain engagement in cultivation 2. Problems identified by the instructor 3. Solutions to the bloods 4. superior development.4. Consequences4.1. Personal engagemen t in tuitionThe instructor gave multiple statements about this subject, as he is a unit coordinator his personal engagement in instruction is really profound. Due to this function, he is besides really involved in the content and may experience responsible for the result, ( e.g. class of his pupils ) . Therefore he is really focussed on transportation of cognition. He is besides cognizant of he s possible short approachs, and is interested in the sentiments of the pupils about his instruction method. He tries to look into if transportation of cognition has occurred, coming back in his coach group on the subject, besides repeat indispensable stairss once more at the terminal of the coach group, or meddlesome directed inquiry during his talks.4.2. Problems identified by the instructorAlthough, the instructor mentioned that thither atomic number 18 several hard subjects or constructs in his unit, merely one lesson was given, however this was discussed extensively. Furthermore, he was cognizant that these jobs may besides be out-of-pocket to the fact that a big portion of the pupils have no anterior cognition of biological science and that biological science is cardinal for this unit in which he is the unit coordinator.4.3. Solutions to the jobsThe chief focal principal on work outing the jobs or job discussed was the usage of fresh electronic AIDSs. Such as available alive films, which atomic number 18 demoing these sensitive constructs or jobs in great item. It has to be noted that the instructor was cognizant of the defects of this solvent. However, the instructor did non advert other options, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as analogies which may be used alternatively every bit good.4.4. Professional developmentIt became clear from the interview that in that location is some kind of professional development plan available at his organisation, solely so far he has non got any rating. The instructor feels this deficiency of aid a great girl. Although he mention that he took fulfill on this point on his ain, by delegating to a precise instruction class, which is provide by his organisation. The instructor is really focused on the results from the pupils, and besides gives great apprise to the ratings from the pupils, even though these are roughly in paper formats and non unwritten.5. Conclusion/Advice to the instructorDr. H. Popeijus ( HP ) has a clear blow up on his unit and what are the jobs within this unit, as became clear that for his unit some biological science background is necessary. His consciousness on instruction is really unfastened and modern he is integrating radical techniques or characteristics in his talks. He is unfastened for the sentiments of the pupils and is clearly involved in transportation of cognition or acquisition, even though he might non be cognizant of this.From assorted surveies is hit the sackn that the attending span of pupils is limited in the context of long talks. The information bu dge theoretical account of the traditionalistic talks does non fit what online cognitive scientific discipline research tells us of human acquisition ( Middendorf, 1996 ) . So by utilizing extra tools HP is overhearking to act upon the information transportation during his talks. He besides mentions that he is cognizant of the drawback of utilizing alive films in his talks. However, with consciousness of the possible drawbacks of the big format, talks can be used as valuable tools for larning besides in a PBL course of study ( Fyrenius, Bergdahl, &038 A Silen, 2005 ) . Furthermore, it might besides be helpful to utilise analogies next to alive films because it can assist pupils to practice the information they already understand to develop an apprehension of new constructs. Analogies are comparings in the midst of devil spheres that are neither, wholly equivalent nor wholly varied. These comparings are used to advance transportation of information from one special job to another peculiar job ( MaryKay &038 A George, 2006 ) . Due to the fact that some pupils lack the biological science background it may useful to utilize analogies which domain is non in biological science but in another more staple fibre field ( eg. Book with chapters as an analogy for desoxyribonucleic acid codification with cistrons ) .To better instruction or the instruction by ply members a high-quality professional development constituent would be of great value to the administration every bit good as add-on to the professional development of HP. It is good recognized by policymakers that schools can be no better than the instructors and decision makers who work within them ( Guskey, 2002 ) . It is good known that staff members or module members are passionate about their discipline/profession. They are besides really acute to reassign their cognition and the significance of this cognition to their pupils. Regardless of these good exercises, they may be so occupied with vie wing the capable affair that they lose path of how much of that stuff rightfully gets conveyed ( Montgomery, 1998 ) . It is hence that there are good developmental plans inside the constitute or university to develop and alter the manner the instructors work. For most instructors, to go a better instructor means heightening pupils larning results ( Guskey, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to the theoretical account from Guskey, of import alteration in instructors mentalities take topographic point after the instructors see grounds of betterments in pupil acquisition. When instructors have used new instructional attacks, or utilizing new stuff these betterments may happen. It is hence that there is a good ratings system for the instructors non merely on the degree of pupils outcome but besides on the public presentation as a instructor ego. An advice to HP is to seek such rating and counsel from his ain demonstrate or administration.In drumhead the advice to HP is, maintain up with the new inventions in your talks, but besides seek to utilize analogies to clear up some hard jobs and seek to happen out if the university has some teacher staff development plans to better the instruction.Transfer of LearningTransfer of breeding is the study of the dependency of human conduct, eruditeness, or exertion on earlier experience. The notion was genuinely introduced as raptus of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth. They explored how individuals would hit study in one context to another context that share standardised characteristics or more formally how breakment in one mental function could influence another related one.Their system implied that expatriation of acquisition depends on the proportion to which the teaching confinement and the counterchange parturiency are similar, or where same elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function, now known as identical element theory. Transfer research has since attracted much a ttention in numerous domains, producing a wealth of confirmable findings and theoretical commentarys.However, there remains considerable controversy about how enrapture of watching should be conceptualized and explained, what its probability occurrence is, what its similarity is to schooling in widely distributed, or whether it may be said to exist at all. well-nigh discussions of exaltation to date can be developed from a parkland operational definition, describing it as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the conduct source) affect learning and performance in a current brisk situation (the remove mark) (Ellis, 1965 Woodworth, 1938).This, however, is usually where the ordinary consensus amidst miscellaneous research approaches ends. Transfer taxonomies Of the various attempts to delineate move out, typological and taxonomic approaches belong to the more common ones (see, e. g. , Barnett &038 Ceci, 2002 Butterfield, 19 88 Detterman, 1993 Gagne, 1977 Reeves &038 Weisberg, 1994 Salomon &038 Perkins, 1989 Singley &038 Anderson, 1989). Taxonomies are concerned with distinguishing different types of change over, and therefore less involved with labeling the actual vehicle of commute, i. e. , what is the explanatory mental unit of depute that is carried over.Hence, a key problem with umteen exile taxonomies is that they finisher an excessive number of labels for different types of ecstasy without engaging in a discussion of the underlying concepts that would justify their distinction i. e. , similarity and the nature of sellred information. This makes it very difficult to hold dear the internal validity of the models. The following table presents different types of shift, as commensurate from Schunk (2004, p. 220). TypeCharacteristics NearOverlap between situations, original and deepen contexts are similar. FarLittle overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are dissimilar. exactingWhat is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting. NegativeWhat is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting. VerticalKnowledge of a earlier topic is essential to acquire new association. HorizontalKnowledge of a preliminary topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic. LiteralIntact experience transfers to new labor. FiguralUse some aspect of familiar noesis to deliberate or learn about a problem. Low avenuewayTransfer of well-established skills in about automatic fashion. High RoadTransfer involves kidnapion so conscious formulations of connections between contexts.High Road/Forward ReachingAbstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer context. High Road/Backward ReachingAbstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where new skills and companionship were learned. Apart from the effect-based distinction between negative and positive transfer, taxonom ies have largely been constructed along two, mostly tacit, dimensions. adept concerns the forestalled comparisonship between the primary and secondary learning situation in scathe of the categorical overlap of features and knowledge specificity constraints.The other concerns general assumptions about how transfer relationships are established, in terms of mental effort and cognitive process. The effect- opinion positive vs. negative transfer Starting by looking at the effect side of transfer in terms of the common performance criteria, speed and accuracy transfer theories distinguish between two giving classes that underlie all other classifications negative andpositive transfer. Negative transfer refers to the hurt of current learning and performance due to the application of non-adaptive or unlike information or behavior.Therefore, negative transfer is a type of mental disturbance effect of prior experience causing a slow-down in learning, mop up or solving of a new lin e when compared to the performance of a hypothetical fit group with no respective prior experience. Positive transfer, in contrast, emphasizes the beneficial effects of prior experience on current thinking and action. It is important to understand that the positive and negative effects of transfer are not mutually exclusive, and therefore real-life transfer effects are in all probability mostly a mixture of both.Positive transfer transfer of learning or training is said to be positive when the learning or training carried out in one situation proves helpful to learning in another situation. Examples of such transfer are the knowledge and skills related to school maths help in the learning of statistical figuring the knowledge and skills acquired in terms of addition and subtraction in mathematics in school may help a child in the acquisition of knowledge and skills regarding multiplication and division learning to play badminton may help an individual to play ping pong (table te nnis) and lawn tennis.The situation perspective specific vs. general, near vs. far transfer The situation-driven perspective on transfer taxonomies is concerned with describing the relation between transfer source (i. e. , the prior experience) and transfer target (i. e. , the novel situation). In other words, the notion of novelty of the target situation per se is worthless without specifying the degree of novelty in relation to something that existed before. Butterfield and Nelson (1991), for example, distinguish between within-task, crossways-task, and inventive transfer.A similar classification approach reappears in many situation-driven transfer taxonomies (e. g. , similar vs. different situations, example-to-principle and vice versa, simple-to-complex and vice versa) and can be noted as distinctions made along the specific vs. general dimension. Mayer and Wittrock (1996, pp. 49ff. ) discuss transfer under the labels of general transfer of general skill (e. g. , Formal Discipl ine, Binet, 1899), specific transfer of specific skill (e. g. , Thorndikes, 1924a, b, identical elements theory), specific transfer of general skill (e. g. Gestaltists transfer theory, see origins with Judd, 1908), and meta-cognitive control of general and specific skills as a sort of combination of the previous three views (see, e. g. , Brown, 1989). Haskells (2001) taxonomy proposes a more gradual scheme of similarity between tasks and situations. It distinguishes between non-specific transfer (i. e. , the constructivist idea that all learning builds on present knowledge), application transfer (i. e. , the retrieval and use of knowledge on a previously learned task), context transfer (actually meaning context-free transfer between similar tasks), near vs. ar transfer, and finally displacement or fictive transfer (i. e. , an inventive or analytic type of transfer that refers to the earth of a new rootage during problem solving as a result of a synthesis of past and current learn ing experiences). some(prenominal) near and far transfer are widely used terms in the belles-lettres. The former refers to transfer of learning when task and/or context change slightly but remain largely similar, the latter to the application of learning experiences to related but largely dissimilar problems. The process perspectiveThe specific vs. general dimension applies not just to the focus on the relation between source and target, i. e. , from where to where is transferred, but also to the question about the transfer process itself, i. e. , what is transferred and how. Reproductive vs. productive transfer (see Robertson, 2001) are good examples of this type of distinction, whereas reproductive transfer refers to the simple application of knowledge to a novel task, productive transfer implies adaptation i. e. mutation and enhancement of retained information.A similar dichotomous distinction is the one between knowledge transfer and problem-solving transfer (Mayer &038 Wittro ck, 1996). Knowledge transfer takes place when knowing something after learning task A palliates or interferes with the learning process or performance in task B. Knowledge used is referred to by many different terms, such as asserting(prenominal) or procedural types (Anderson, 1976), but it means that there are representational elements that suit A and B. Problem solving transfer, on the other hand, is described as somewhat more fluid knowledge transfer, so that experience in solving a problem A helps finding a solution to problem B.This can mean that the two problems share little in terms of specific declarative knowledge entities or procedures, but call for a similar approach, or solution search strategies (e. g. , heuristics and problem solving methods). The issues discussed in problem-solving transfer literature are also closely related to the concepts of strategic and theoretic transfer (Haskell, 2001, p. 31), and cognitive research on analogical reasoning, rule-based thinki ng and meta-cognition.Indeed, far transfer can be considered as the prototypical type of transfer, and it is closely related to the study of analogical reasoning (see also Barnett &038 Ceci, 2002, for a taxonomy of far transfer). Within the problem-solving literature the distinction between specific and general methods is made mostly with filename extension to Newell and Simons (1972) strong vs. weak problem solving methods (Chi, Glaser &038 Farr, 1988 Ericsson &038 Smith, 1991 Singley &038 Anderson, 1989 Sternberg &038 Frensch, 1991). Another concern that is frequently addressed in transfer taxonomies is the question of conscious effort.High-road vs. low-road transfer (Mayer &038 Wittrock, 1996 Salomon &038 Perkins, 1989) expresses a distinction between such instances of transfer where lively retrieval, mapping, and inference processes take place, as opposed to those instances that occur rather spontaneously or automatically. Hence, low-road transfer concerns frequently employed mental representations and automated, proceduralized knowledge, and occurs preferably in near transfer settings. In contrast, high-road transfer is more conception-driven, and requires cognitive and meta-cognitive effort. Traditional palm of transfer researchThere are a nearly unlimited number of research fields that share some use interest into the study of transfer, as it pertains to learning in general. Three fields that contributed in most substantial slipway to the progress of transfer research, both from a conception and experiential point of view, are the fields of education science, linguistics, and human-computer interaction (HCI). In fact, most transfer research has been conducted in reference to one of these applied settings, rather than in rudimentary cognitive psychological laboratory conditions. Education science command for transferDue to their core concern with learning, educational science and practice are the unmingled fields of interest regarding transfer re search, and probably the prime target for the application of theories. Transfer of learning represents much of the very basis of the educational purpose itself. What is learned inside one classroom about a certain subject should aid in the attainment of related goals in other classroom settings, and beyond that it should be applicable to the students developmental tasks outside the school the call for for transfer receives more accentuated.This is because the world educators teach in at once is different from the world they themselves experienced as students, and differs equally from the one their students volition have to cope with in the future. By nature of their applied interest, educationalists main concern has been less with the question of how transfer takes place, and much more with under what conditions, or, that it happens at all. The basic conviction that students learning and achievement levels depend in the first place on learning and achievement prerequisites, has constituted a central part in educational learning theories for quite some time (Gage &038 Berliner, 1983 Glaser, 984). The major focus in educational transfer studies has, therefore, been on what kind of initial learning enables subsequent transfer teaching for transfer. Research on learning and transfer has identified key characteristics with implications for educational practice. From Formal Discipline to meta-cognition educational transfer paradigms have been changing quite radically over the inhabit one hundred years.According to the doctrinaire beliefs of the Formal Discipline (Binet, 1899) transfer was ab initio viewed as a kind of global spread of capabilities accomplished by training basic mental faculties (e. g. , logic, attention, memory) in the exercise of suitable subjects, such as Latin or geometry. With the turn of the 20th century, learning, and therefore transfer of learning, was increasingly captured in behavioral and empiricist terms, as in the Connectionist and Associationist theories of Thorndike (e. g. , 1932), Guthrie (e. g. , 1935), Hull (e. g. , 1943), and muleteer (e. g. , 1938).Thorndike (1923, 1924a and b) attacked the Formal Discipline empirically and theoretically and introduced the theory of identical elements, which is probably still today the most influential conception about transfer (Thorndike, 1906 Thorndike &038 Woodworth, 1901a, b and c). Thorndikes belief that transfer of learning occurs when learning source and learning target share common stimulus-response elements prompted calls for a hierarchical curricular social system in education. Lower and specific skills should be learned before more complex skills, which were presumed to consist largely of configuration of basic skills.This small-to-large learning, also referred to as part-to-whole or vertical transfer, has been customary with theories of learning hierarchies (Gagne, 1968). It has later been challenged from conceptualistic point of views, which argue that learning is not just an accumulation of pieces of knowledge (i. e. , rote learning memorization), but rather a process and product of alert spin of cognitive knowledge structures (Bruner, 1986 Bruner, Goodnow &038 Austin, 1956). Knowledge, from a constructivist perspective, was no more believed to be a simple transfer by generalization to all kinds of situations and tasks that contain similar components (i. . , stimulus-response patterns see also Logan, 1988 Meyers &038 Fisk, 1987 Osgood, 1949 Pavlov, 1927). The critical issue was the identification of similarities in general principles and concepts behind the facades of two dissimilar problems i. e. , transfer by insight. This idea became popular in the Gestaltists view on transfer (e. g. , Katona, 1940), and, in combination with evolution interest in learners as self activated problem-solvers (Bruner, 1986), promote the search for abstract problem-solving methods and mental schemata, which serve as analogy-enhancing transfer-b ridges between different task situations.Emerging from these developments, a new theme started to dominate educationalists research in transfer meta-cognition (Brown, 1978 Brown &038 Campione, 1981 Campione &038 Brown, 1987 Flavell, 1976). In contrast to classical knowledge forms like declarative and procedural knowledge, different types of meta-knowledge and meta-cognitive skills such as strategic knowledge, heuristics, self-monitoring skills, and self-regulation quickly became the road to learning and transfer.Characterized as self-conscious management and organization of acquired knowledge (Brown, 1987) it is lucid that meta-cognitive awareness of task features, problem structures, and solution methods makes relations between different situations cognitively salient only an individual who learns from learning, learns for future learning. Soini (1999) developed on the same core ideas an examination of the preconditions for active transfer. Her emphasis is on the active and self-r eflected management of knowledge to increase its accessibility.To some researchers, meta-cognition and transfer have become so entangled that the argument was generated that only the measurement of positive transfer effects truly supports inferences that meta-cognitive learning has taken place (e. g. MacLeod, Butler &038 Syer, 1996). The stimulus generalisation predicament return to the specificity view Ever since the introduction of the meta-knowledge theme in education science, transfer discussions have been oscillating between the position taken by those representing the meta-cognitive view and those who stress that generic knowledge forms alone do not allow an effective transfer of learning.When knowledge stays on the tip of the tongue, just knowing that one knows a solution to a problem, without being able to transfer specific declarative knowledge (i. e. , know-what) or automated procedural knowledge (i. e. , know-how), does not suffice. Specific teaching of the cognitive an d behavioral requisites for transfer marked in principle a return to the identical element view, and can be summarized with Dettermanns (1993) conclusion that transfer does not substantially go beyond the restricted boundaries of what has been specifically taught and learned.The basic transfer paradigms in educational psychology keep replicating themselves, and fundamental forwarding of transfer itself is seen to be achievable through sensibilization of students by creating a general culture and a spirit of transfer inside the classroom on the one hand, and by allowing concrete learning from transfer models on the other (Haskell, 2001). Learning and transfer implications for educational practice A modern view of transfer in the context of educational practice shows little need to distinguish between the general and specific paradigms, recognizing the role of both identical elements and metacognition.In this view, the work of Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) identified four key c haracteristics of learning as applied to transfer. They are 1. The necessity of initial learning 2. The importance of abstract and contextual knowledge 3. The conception of learning as an active and high-octane process and 4. The notion that all learning is transfer. First, the necessity of initial learning for transfer specifies that mere exposure or memorization is not learning there moldiness be understanding.Learning as understanding takes time, such that expertise with deep, organized knowledge improves transfer. Teaching that emphasizes how to use knowledge or that improves need should enhance transfer. Second, while knowledge anchored in context is important for initial learning, it is also inflexible without some level of abstraction that goes beyond the context. Practices to improve transfer include having students specify connections across multiple contexts or having them develop general solutions and strategies that would apply beyond a unity-context case.Third, learn ing should be considered an active and dynamic process, not a static product. Instead of one-shot tests that follow learning tasks, students can improve transfer by engaging in assessments that break away beyond current abilities. Improving transfer in this way requires instructor prompts to assist students such as dynamic assessments or student development of metacognitive skills without prompting. Finally, the fourth characteristic defines all learning as transfer.New learning builds on previous learning, which implies that teachers can facilitate transfer by activating what students know and by making their thinking visible. This includes addressing student misconceptions and recognizing cultural behaviors that students bring to learning situations. A student-learning centered view of transfer embodies these four characteristics. With this conception, teachers can help students transfer learning not just between contexts in academics, but also to common home, work, or communit y environments. Inter- nomenclature transferAnother traditional field of applied research is inter-language transfer. Here, the central questions were how does learning one language (L1) facilitate or interfere (Weinreich, 1953) with the acquisition of and proficiency in a second language (L2), and how does the training and use of L2, in turn, affect L1? Several variations of this conception of inter-language transfer can be found in the literature, also referred to as fetch tongue influence or cross language interference (Corder, 1983, 1994 Faerch &038 Kasper, 1987 Jiang &038 Kuehn, 2001 Odlin, 1989 OMalley nd Chamot, 1990). What makes inter-language transfer a complex and valuable research national is the fact that language knowledge skills continuously develop. This is so for L1, as well as for L2, when only bilingualism is considered, while alternately at least one of them is continuously in use. This has led to the development of very different models of how languages are men tally correspond and managed, with L1 and L2 seen as two independent or autonomous mental systems (e. g. Genesee, 1989 Grosjean, 1989), as being represented in a single unified system (e. g.Redlinger &038 Park, 1980 Swain, 1977), and as rooting in a common underlying, multi-lingual conceptual base (CUCB see Kecskes &038 Papp, 2000). humanity-Computer Interaction designing for transfer A third research area that has produced a variety of transfer models and empirical results can be located within the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). With the start of the user age in the 1980s, HCI and all kinds of virtual environments have, in many ways, become something like psychological micro-worlds for cognitive research. This is naturally also reflected in the study of transfer.Developments in favor of cognitive approaches to transfer research were oddly accelerated by rapid changes in modern lifestyles, resulting in a virtual upsurge of cognitive demands in interaction with appli ed science. Thus, the call was on clearly domain-focused cognitive models to study the way users learn and perform when interacting with information technological systems (Card, Moran &038 Newell, 1980a and b, 1983 Olson &038 Olson, 1990 Payne &038 Green, 1986 Polson, 1987, 1988). Transfer based on the user complexity theory Thorough investigations of cognitive skills involved in HCI tasks have their origins with the research on text editing (e. . , Kieras &038 Polson, 1982, 1985 Singley &038 Anderson, 1985). The offspring of this type of research were computational cognitive models and architectures of various degrees of sophistication, suitable for all kinds of man-machine interaction studies, as well as studies outside of the HCI domain. The original examples for these have become Kieras and Polsons (1985) user complexity theory (later rephrased as cognitive complexity theory) and the GOMS family (i. e. , Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection) rules based on the Model Human Proce ssor framework (Card et al. , 1980a and b, 1983 John &038 Kieras, 1996a and b).All of these models have their roots in the basic principles of production systems and can be comprehended with the help of ends-means-selections and If-Then-rules, combined with the necessary declarative and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1995 Newell &038 Simon, 1972). The crucial perspective for transfer became that of technology design. By applying cognitive models, scientists and practitioners aimed at minimizing the amount and complexity of new knowledge necessary to understand and perform tasks on a device, without trading off too much utility value (Polson &038 Lewis, 1990).A key responsibility was given to skill and knowledge transfer. Due to the fact that the cognitive complexity theory is a psychological theory of transfer applied to HCI (Bovair, Kieras, &038 Polson, 1990 Polson &038 Kieras, 1985), the central question was how these models, united under the GOMS umbrella, can be used to explain and predict transfer of learning. The basic transfer-relevant assumptions of the emerging models were that production rules are cognitive units, they are all equally difficult to learn, and that learned rules can be transferred to a new task without any cost.Because learning time for any task is seen as a function of the number of new rules that the user must learn, total learning time is directly reduced by comprehension of productions the user is already familiar with. The basic message of the cognitive complexity theory is to conceptualize and induce transfer from one system to another by function of shared production rules, which is a new interpretation of Thorndikes (1923, 1924a and b) identical element premise and eventually echoed in Singley and Andersons (1989) theory of transfer (Bovair et al. 1990 Kieras &038 Bovair, 1986 Polson &038 Kieras, 1985 Polson, Muncher &038 Engelbeck, 1986). A practical implication of the procedural communality principle has been formulated by Lewis and Rieman (1993), who suggest something like transfer of design on the side of the industry You should find existing interfaces that work for users and then build ideas from those interfaces into your systems as much as practically and legally possible. Emergence of holistic views of useDiscouraged by the imprisoned character of the GOMS-related transfer models, many research groups began to import and advance new concepts, such as schemata principles and general methods a general development encouraged by the emerging cognitive approach to transfer that was also witnessed by other applied fields. Bhavnani and John (2000) analyzed different computer applications and strived to recognize such user strategies (i. e. , general methods to perform a certain task), which deduce across three distinct computer domains (word processor, spreadsheet, and CAD).Their conclusive argument is that strategy-conducive systems could facilitate the transfer of knowledge (p. 338). Other resear ch groups authors that assessed the questions about how people learn in interaction with information systems, evaluated the usefulness of metaphors and how these should be taken into precondition when designing for exploratory environments (e. g. Baecker, Grudin, Buxton, &038 Greenberg, 1995 Carroll &038 Mack, 1985, Condon, 1999).As researchers became increasingly interested in the quality of a users knowledge representation (e. g. , Gott, Hall, Pokorny, Dibble, &038 Glaser, 1993), mental models and adaptive expertise, as knowledge and skills which generalizes across different contexts of complex problem-solving tasks, became of paramount concern (Gentner &038 Stevens, 1983 Gott, 1989 Kieras &038 Bovair, 1984). In contrast to the knowledge of strategies (Bhavnani &038 John, 2000), the accentuation shifted towards strategic knowledge (Gott et al. 1993). Gott et al. demonstrated that surface similarities between different technical domains alone did not essentially facilitate transfe r of learning because they limited the users flexibility in the adaptation process. In accordance with the ideas of schema-based and meta-cognitive transfer, the authors still formulated that robust performance is one in which procedural steps are not just naked, rule-based actions, but instead are back up by explanations that perform like theories to enable adaptiveness (p. 60). Gott et al. (1993) finally noted that mental models might be powerful instruments to analyze similarities between tasks as represented within a formulated cognitive architecture. However, they do not explain what particular similarities and differences are sufficiently salient from the individuals mental point of view to affect transfer of learning, nor can they predict motivational or ablaze conditions of transfer that are essential requisites for every learning process.